The history of aqueducts and baths in ancient Rome is a fascinating journey through one of the greatest engineering achievements of the time. The Ancient Rome’s water supply system is an extraordinary testament to the technical skill and urban planning of the Romans. It also demonstrates their understanding of the importance of water for daily life and public health.
The water system of Ancient Rome
Over the centuries, the Romans built an impressive network of aqueducts to transport water from distant sources to the cities. These imposing infrastructures, often extending for tens of miles, overcame natural obstacles through a complex system of arches and channels. The aqueducts not only provided drinking water but were also essential for the operation of the numerous public baths. In ancient Rome, these baths symbolised well-being and served as the ultimate social hub.
The renowned Greek geographer Strabo wrote about Rome’s water system, saying, “The amount of water that flows into the city is so great that rivers flow through the city and its underground channels. Almost every house has its own conduits and tanks and boasts fountains that gush abundantly.”
A bit of numbers
When Strabo wrote these words, Rome had only seven large aqueducts. By the mid-1st century AD, this number had increased to 9, and finally to 11 by 226 AD. In total, the Roman aqueducts were well over 311 miles long.
An estimated minimum of 500,000 cubic meters of water arrive in Rome each day. However, this does not account for all the water lost along the way due to leaks, repairs, spillages, and seepage. With a population of 1 million, the per capita water availability was estimated to be 133 U.S. gals. Only in the 20th century would this figure reappear, and not in every location.
Roman aqueducts and their organization
The aqueducts of ancient Rome were majestic engineering works. Designers intended them to transport water directly from distant sources into the cities. Considering the daily activities, the needs of the time, and the fact that water flowed day and night without pause, it’s easy to understand that only a small part of the per capita water availability was actually used.
Most of the water thus flowed into collection basins through channels. Three circuits used the water during daylight hours. The public circuit supplied citizens with freely filled cisterns and fountains. Then there was the circuit reserved for baths and thermae. Lastly, the circuit supplied water to individual residences via unique pipes.
The history of Roman aqueducts can be found in various sources.
The main source for the history of Roman aqueducts is the work of Frontinus. He assumed the role of general manager of the city’s water supply in 97 AD.
According to his reports, 45% of the water flowed into private homes, even though the proportion of the population that had this privilege was much lower.
How Roman aqueducts were built
Stone, brick, and pozzolanic concrete were the main materials used to build Roman aqueducts. Pozzolanic concrete was an innovative material for the time. Most of the aqueducts’ route was underground. However, where necessary, such as in valleys or to cross other natural obstacles, the aqueducts ran on imposing arches.
A notable feature of Roman aqueducts was their gradient. They had a very slight slope that ensured the water flowed steadily but slowly toward its destination. This was essential to maintain water pressure and prevent erosion of the structure.
Water distribution in Ancient Rome
Once in the city, a sophisticated system of secondary pipes distributed the water. This system fed public fountains, baths, private houses, and productive activities. During the Republican era, one had to approach the aediles and censors to request a private connection to the water network. During the Imperial era, one had to approach the emperors directly. Getting permission during the Republic was quite difficult. Emperors, on the other hand, were more lenient in granting this privilege. Indeed, the ruling classes and elite viewed it as a political exchange and a benefit.
The permission was tied to the individual who made the request, and upon their death, the application had to be made again. Due to the cost of all the conduits, having water in the house remained a luxury for the wealthy. For this reason, the conduits bore the owner’s name. Most rental houses, the so-called insulae, had no pipes. Romans drew their daily water use from public fountains and reservoirs distributed throughout the city.
Reservoirs
There were at least two aqueducts leading to reservoirs. This allowed for always having fresh running water, even in case of work and repairs on one of the two. Maintaining hygiene was crucial, as contaminating a reservoir resulted in a fine. Neighborhood residents elected sentries to monitor the cleanliness of the reservoirs.
The journey from the fountain to the home was usually short. People either carried water home on foot or used pulleys to reach higher floors. There were also water carriers, a profession many Romans lived by.
Other regions of the Roman Empire had their own water systems.
Rome always had water, but other parts of the empire did not. For example, Pompeii created a simple yet effective system to preserve water resources. The longer conduits ended in elevated water castles located within the city. These conduits distributed the water along three different paths. The lowest path supplied the public street fountains. In this way, even in cases of reduced flow, all citizens had access to a certain amount of water. The middle path supplied the baths and representative buildings.
The highest path was used to transport water for private houses. This water depends on the maximum level in the basins. However, houses also included small reservoirs, private fountains, and cisterns to collect rainwater from inner courtyards. In the countryside, there were wells and natural springs.
Personal hygiene among the Romans
Water means hygiene and cleanliness. The Romans of the imperial age thought their predecessors were dirty. The reason for this belief was that they only took a complete bath on market days, which equated to every nine days. Thus, for a long time, Romans did not have the regular habit of bathing, even in those private houses where water was available.
But one can easily imagine why. The bath was usually next to the kitchen. It was a narrow and cold space, with turbid water arriving from the tap. When it rained, the water became even more muddy. Everything changed in the Imperial era. In the homes of the wealthy, baths became spacious and luxurious. However, most of the Roman population could still not afford to go to private baths (balnea). By the end of the second century BC, things changed again.
Public bathing establishments
Public bathing establishments, also known as balnea meritoria (rental baths), became increasingly widespread. The cost to use them was modest, albeit slightly more expensive for women. All Romans could thus afford to wash more often and thoroughly. A century after their appearance, there were 70 balnea in Rome, and the number continued to grow over time.
Within the establishments, there were various facilities such as cold baths (frigidarium), lukewarm baths (tepidarium), hot baths (calidarium), saunas, and gyms for exercise. The owners of public bathing businesses embellished the environs with statues and frescoes, competing to improve the services provided. The heating system of the baths, known as the hypocaust, represents another testament to Roman hydraulic engineering. A system of pipes under the floor enabled the heating of the air and water, thereby creating a comfortable thermal environment.
Baths and leisure time
Males and females had separate baths, and different clientele could access them at different times. People frowned upon mixed bathing because no clothes or costumes were worn inside.
But baths soon became a way to spend leisure time, in addition to washing. Many emperors built huge establishments that became a sort of water park for the people. The largest baths, like the Baths of Caracalla or the Baths of Diocletian, were grand architectural complexes equipped with numerous pools, gyms, and spaces for social activities.
Thermal waters
The Romans had boundless faith in the therapeutic properties of thermal waters. In the 1st century BC, the most famous baths were those of Aquae Cumanae, in the locality of Baiae, in the Gulf of Naples. Baiae was the most exclusive and worldly thermal resort in the Roman world. People went there not only for health treatments but also to indulge in fleeting love affairs, have fun, and spend days in leisure.
Beyond the Alps, in places like Baden-Baden, Aachen, and Wiesbaden, one can find thermal resorts.
In Roman times, even Bath was a popular destination in England. Other baths were widespread in France. The effectiveness of thermal waters was a subject of heated debate among doctors. Many doctors were skeptical of the effectiveness of thermal waters, and some even considered them harmful to health. This led to the widespread use of Charmis’s cold water therapy. This practice consisted of cold showers for those patients who had become too accustomed to the hot thermal waters of Baiae.
Sewers and wastewater management
In addition to supplying clean water, the Romans also developed a system for wastewater management. The Cloaca Maxima, one of the oldest known sewer systems, is an example of such engineering. This drainage network served to remove wastewater and rainwater from the city, contributing significantly to hygiene and public health.
The efficiency and sophistication of the Roman water system were unprecedented in the ancient world. They deeply influenced subsequent hydraulic engineering works throughout Europe and the Mediterranean area. These achievements improved the quality of daily life in Rome and reflected the value that the ancient Romans placed on public health, social well-being, and technological progress.
Aqueducts and baths in Ancient Rome Gallery
