Ancient Rome clothing directly reflected an individual’s social status, political role, and personal life circumstances.
Ancient Rome clothing
During the Republic phase (509–27 BC), the Ancient Rome clothing was relatively simple and functional, designed to reflect the Roman society’s values of modesty and practicality at the time. Only free Roman citizens wore the toga, the most emblematic garment. Only magistrates and priests could wear the toga praetexta with its characteristic purple stripe. In fact, it symbolized authority and sacredness. Roman women wore the stola, a long tunic indicating their status as free and married women.
With the rise of the Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD), the ancient Rome clothing became more elaborate and diverse, reflecting the influence of other cultures that Rome came into contact with. Citizens of higher social classes began to wear the purple toga, a symbol of political and social supremacy, often embellished with gold embroidery. The tunic, a more practical and comfortable garment from Ancient Rome, gained popularity among both men and women, particularly in decorated variants for formal occasions.
The poor and the laws
The working classes, including slaves, wore simpler and more durable clothes, such as short tunics and coarse cloaks, suitable for physical labor and harsh weather conditions. Slaves, in particular, were identifiable by their simple and uniform clothing, devoid of any ornamentation.
The ancient Rome clothing was not just a matter of fashion or convenience. “Sumptuary laws”, which regulated luxury and excess, profoundly influenced it. These laws aimed to maintain class distinction and prevent excessive displays of wealth. However, over time and with the expansion of the Empire, these norms became increasingly difficult to enforce, leading to an inevitable blending of styles and greater variety in clothing.
The national dress, the toga, holds significant importance.
In the first book of the Aeneid, Jupiter addresses Venus with a promise for the supremacy of the Romans, defining them as “rerum dominos gentemque togatam” (“masters of the world, the togate people”). This definition indicates that only members of the “chosen” people could wear the toga, an unmistakable symbol of the right to Roman citizenship.
The toga was defined as the “state and honor dress” that only a true Roman citizen could wear as a sign of national belonging. The toga served as the national costume and embodied the essence of ancient Rome’s clothing. Not surprisingly, those condemned to exile also lost the ius togae—the right to wear this garment. Moreover, there was much attention to ensuring that foreigners did not wear it.
Liberalia, the Toga festival
The symbolic power of the toga was at the heart of an ancient Roman festival called Liberalia. It was a family-oriented festival where young Roman men, about 16 years old and born free, exchanged the toga praetexta, characterized by a high purple edge, for the completely white toga virilis.
The festival symbolically marked the transition from youth to adulthood. The community welcomed boys between the ages of 15 and 17, essentially transforming them into men. Liberalia generally coincided with the festival of Bacchus on March 17.
Ancient Rome’s clothing featured a variety of togas.
Heavy white wool fabric, devoid of ornaments or colors, constituted the standard toga. This was called the toga pura. Boys from the most important families, as well as officials and priests, wore the toga praetexta, which was characterized by a high colored edge.
Candidates for any office wore a particular white toga, known as a toga candida, to stand out more easily from other citizens. Those in mourning wore a gray or black toga. Men were buried wearing toga.
The toga goes out of fashion.
Yet, at a certain point, the poet Juvenal observes: “In much of Italy, no one wears the toga except the dead.” Martial reinforces this: “Outside the capital, togas remained dusty in chests; worn once or twice a month, they could last even sixteen summers.” But not just outside Rome. At least in the late Republic era, even in the capital, the habit of not wearing the state dress spread. People simply wore a Greek pallium, a mantle, when they went out. Just a few decades earlier, this would have shocked people.
Thus, in the Augustan age, a solemn call from the emperor was necessary to enforce the ancient rules, at least among the most important classes. Augustus ordered the aediles to ensure that every Roman citizen wore the toga in the Forum and its vicinity. However, the toga gradually lost its popularity. People wore it only where it was unavoidable, like at public games, in court, and at official ceremonies.
Why did the toga become unfashionable?
Mainly for convenience. The toga was challenging to wear, and its arrangement demanded both skill and time. Indeed, this garment required precise and visually pleasing folds to drape its semi-circular cloth. While the Republican era reduced the size of this semicircle, the imperial era significantly increased its size, posing challenges for those without slaves or the patience to arrange the numerous folds.
The lyric poet Horace, for example, often complained in his writings about the poor outcome of the folds. Quintilian wrote a modern tutorial to achieve perfect folds. From his text, we understand the difficulties in wearing the toga. It was simply an uncomfortable garment, a manageable nuisance to wear every day, especially for those who did not have to work at a desk.
The difference between men and women
Moreover, there was a substantial difference between men and women. In ancient times, both sexes wore the toga indifferently, but the stola replaced it for women.
It was a tunic reserved for matrones and forbidden to women of bad reputation. These women continued to wear the toga, which became the symbol of recognition for prostitutes and adulteresses.
The clothing of Ancient Rome also included other items.
After the toga, the most important garment in ancient Roman clothing was the tunic. The tunic, consisting of two cloths sewn together, was a simple white linen or wool dress. Both men and women wore the tunic at first. No clothes were worn for sleeping in ancient Rome, but they soon started wearing it day and night with a belt. Men wore it to the knee, while women wore it to the ankle.
For greater freedom in the privacy of their home, they wore it without a belt. This was considered unmanly for men, so it should not happen in public. Long-sleeved tunics, traditionally reserved for women, were also considered unmanly. In the 3rd century, the Dalmatic, a tunic with wide sleeves, became popular.
The success of the tunic
The success of the tunic as an everyday garment was such that knights and senators obtained the ius clavi as a class privilege. This privilege involved distinguishing themselves by adding one or two thin vertical purple stripes. The senators, on the other hand, wore the same stripes but much thicker in width to distinguish themselves.
Women wore two tunics. The lower one constituted, along with the belt and a breastband, the underwear. On this, a second tunic was worn, or even more. Men also adhered to this habit when it rained or became cold.
The stole
The stole was a garment intended exclusively for ladies.. It was a special tunic because it had an ornament on the lower edge, a purple ribbon. Initially, only upper-class women wore it. For some writers, such as Pliny, the term stole became synonymous with “elegant lady.” Even today, this particular garment expresses elegance and refinement.
This dress appeared loose and very draped, reaching down to the knees. The cloak could accompany the stole. Freedwomen, that is, women of the people, could not wear it. However, even ladies gradually abandoned the stole until, in the 2nd century AD, the more comfortable draped cloak took its place.
The cloaks
Therefore, during the imperial era, the toga and stole were replaced with cloaks similar to the Greek hisation. Men wore the “pallio,” while women wore the “palla.” The square-cut cloaks, generally made of wool, were hugely successful for their practical use. The draping, not as structured as the toga, extended to the ankles, encompassing the entire body or allowing the right shoulder to remain unencumbered. The fibulae, or buckles, secured the two pieces together at the shoulder.
Moreover, these garments brought some color to the clothing of the ancient Romans. The most fashionable color was purple, but there were also yellow, white, black, or gold cloaks. Despite its popularity, we notice that the pallium barely appears in the statues of the era. The Greek origin of the garment explains its lack of Roman typicality.
Types of cloaks
Men and women wore the paenula cloak to protect themselves from the cold and rain, sleeveless and shaped like a modern poncho. It was made of thick and coarse wool and had a hood. People also wore it because it was an inexpensive, accessible garment.
However, the lacerna was another weatherproof cloak. The lacerna was a type of cloak that was fastened on the shoulder with a buckle and extended up to the knees. The poor wore this type of clothing in coarse, dark fabric. The cloaks for the rich were available in colorful and luxurious versions.
Clothes as status symbols
Then, as now, occupying a specific position in society implied external signs of recognition and differentiation of one’s status symbol. Clothing marked class differences. The greatest distinction between rich and poor was the cloak because it was the garment worn over the others and therefore the most visible. This is why some citizens flaunted beautiful cloaks made with the expensive Tyrian purple, particularly at public games, where everyone could admire them.
Catching the eye with unusual clothing that scandalized the moralists of the time also became the favorite pastime of certain young people. Especially in the 1st century BC, young, wealthy gentlemen began to provoke Roman society by wearing incredibly soft and feminine garments, such as long-sleeved tunics, brightly colored cloaks, and almost transparent tunics.
Conversely, some philosophers pursued the same goal of snobbishly attracting attention through their clothing. However, in this second case, the adopted clothing was ragged and filthy, and the person’s appearance was neglected and dirty.
Ancient Rome clothing Gallery
