One of the most prominent writers of the 19th century in Italy, Alessandro Manzoni was a writer whose works have had a significant influence on both Italian literature and national culture.
Alessandro Manzoni’s biography: early years
Alessandro Manzoni was born in Milan in the year 1785. Count Pietro and Giulia Beccaria, the daughter of Cesare Beccaria, a highly esteemed representative of the Italian Enlightenment, were his parents. Manzoni’s parents divorced shortly after, and he went to a number of Catholic colleges during his early and teenage years to get a classical education. Simultaneously, though, he began to strongly dislike the priests’ strict discipline and teaching approaches. By the age of 16, Alessandro Manzoni already had rationalist and libertarian ideals. He started to visit the circles of Milanese intellectuals during the Napoleonic era because of his familial ties. Alessandro Manzoni became friends with well-known writers like Ugo Foscolo, started penning classicist poetry, and had a lively social life.
He left Milan in 1805 to join his mother in Paris following the death of her companion, Carlo Imbonati. He was a frequent visitor to the Enlightenment intellectuals known as the “ideologists” in Paris. Manzoni’s philosophical, political, literary, and moral ideals were influenced by the moral rigor and liberal spirit of these intellectuals. Manzoni’s religious conversion was profoundly affected by a group of Jansenists that he also frequently visited.
Adulthood
Regarding his private life, Manzoni was always incredibly discreet. News about his conversion to religion is so rare. Undoubtedly, the conversion of his youthful spouse, Enrichetta Blondel, had an impact on him. She started to adhere to Calvinism in Paris. At the age of 25, Manzoni made a permanent return to Milan in 1810. His writings quickly reflected the internal transformations he experienced throughout his stay in Paris. After giving up on traditional poetry, he wrote the “Sacred Hymns” (1812-1815). They were the first writings in a long line of works with historical and religious themes. Manzoni lived a solitary and austere life in Italy. He dedicated himself to his studies, family, and faith. His residence was a gathering place for intellectuals of the Lombard Romantic movement, albeit he did not
Alessandro Manzoni approached politics in a same manner. He had patriotic and unitary feelings and watched the insurrections of 1820-21 from a distance, refusing to take sides. During these years, he composed the first two manuscripts of his masterwork novel, plays, and civil odes, marking the height of his creative output. 1827 saw the publication of “I Promessi Sposi” (The Betrothed). Manzoni adopted a cold stance toward the historical fiction genre after that, despite its great success.
Old age
Due to the popularity of his book, Manzoni rose to prominence in society. He continued to refuse to produce poetry, instead focusing on historical, philosophical, and linguistic issues. Until 1840, he worked on the third draft of “I Promessi Sposi” (The Betrothed), but only from a linguistic perspective. Antonio Rosmini, a Catholic philosopher, served as his spiritual mentor at this time. Manzoni was stricken by a period of mourning. His wife, mother, and some of his many children died, and he had frequent problems with his remaining children.
The author intently watched the events of the Five Days of Milan (1848), but did not take part in them. However, for the occasion, he published the patriotic ode “March 1821,” which had been composed years earlier but never published. He was appointed senator after the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1860. Throughout his long life, he was regarded by the bourgeoisie and the general public as a great writer as well as an intellectual and moral leader. Alessandro Manzoni died in Milan in 1873. Umberto di Savoia, the Prince of Italy, attended the solemn funeral.
Alessandro Manzoni Works: early literary production
Manzoni wrote pieces in his early years that adhered to the classical style of the day. It made extensive use of quotations, rhetorical figures, and formal language. He penned The “Triumph of Liberty,” an allegorical “vision,” in 1801. The poem is a product of its time in terms of both substance and style. The French Revolution against oppression is spurred by the libertarian spirit, yet it is followed by regret at Napoleon’s betrayal of revolutionary principles. Manzoni wrote “Carme in morte di Carlo Imbonati” in 1805.
In 1809, Manzoni wrote the poem “Urania.” It is based on a concept common to classical works: the Muses’ civilizing mission to primitive men. But soon after, Manzoni shown a rejection of classicist culture. He was conscious of the poetic vein’s fatigue and saw the necessity for fresh writing, with new themes and language. Manzoni didn’t write for three years. After that, he composed the “Sacred Hymns,” and the shift in direction was instantly apparent.
“Carme in morte di Carlo Imbonati”
According to a well-established classical scheme, Manzoni has a dream in which his godfather, Carlo Imbonati, teaches him about life and poetry. In this poem, Manzoni conveys his dissatisfaction with historical events of his period, which caused him to live alone. He rejects the chaos and instability of his day and seeks safety in himself, dedicating himself to the cult of writing.
However, in “Carme in morte di Carlo Imbonati,” we can see the future Manzoni’s attitude, specifically his idea that writing must be based on honesty and moral rigor. In fact, Manzoni will later regard poetry as fake and unrelated to reality.
Literary works after religious conversion
Alessandro Manzoni’s religious conversion impacted all aspect of his life, including his literary productivity. He demonstrated this in “Observations on Catholic Morality” (1819). In this piece, he answered to Simonde de Sismondi’s theses, which held that the Catholic religion was the root cause of the degeneration of Italian habits. Manzoni answered by placing complete trust in religion, which he saw as the source of all that is good and right in all aspects of human life. Manzoni’s perspective on history shifted after he converted to Catholicism. If classicism saw the Roman world as the source of modern culture, Manzoni arrived at the polar opposite conclusion. Ancient Rome was a brutal and authoritarian world, with little concern for human life. Manzoni reevaluated the Christian Middle Ages, which he saw as the true forerunner of contemporary civilization.
Manzoni’s anti-classicism led him to reject the heroic and aristocratic view of history, which solely recognizes the victorious and powerful. Instead, he began to consider the vanquished and the common people, excluded from the great events of history. Manzoni’s understanding of literature was likewise altered by religious conversion. He grew interested in issues such as the fall, human failure, evil in history, and sin. The end consequence was a darkness image of reality that could no longer tolerate the ideal carefreeness of classicism or the imaginary world of mythology. Literature must be motivated by the “truth” and man’s historical predicament, free of artificial conventions, rhetorical embellishments, and naive opulent terminology.
The Sacred Hymns
All of his new thoughts were disclosed in the “Sacred Hymns” written between 1812 and 1815. They constituted a turning point in the poetry writing style that was popular at the time. The components were inspired by the ancient world’s religion and classical mythology. Manzoni now considered those themes to be false and wanted to write about contemporary moral issues, themes that reflected the “true”. A new form of poetry emerged, addressing common people rather than the exclusive community of intellectuals.
The author envisioned himself as a simple interpreter of the Christian conscience, abandoning his egocentrism in the midst of a community of believers intent on celebrating the liturgical event. For these reasons, Manzoni used an agile and popularizing beat to capture the gathered faithful’s holy enthusiasm. The language grew simpler.
Contents of the Sacred Hymns
Alessandro Manzoni’s the project comprised the composition of 12 hymns commemorating the major feasts of the liturgical year. He penned only four: the Resurrection, Christmas, the Passion, and the Name of Mary. He completed the fifth Pentecost song in 1822. Manzoni was inspired by the ancient Christian hymnography paradigm, which incorporated the Gospels as well as Church Father texts.
The first four hymns follow a regular pattern. The narrator introduces the theme before reenacting the primary episode. Finally, the narrator discusses the episode’s doctrinal and moral repercussions. Instead, Pentecost operates differently. Theological elements and the episode’s plot vanish, leaving just a discussion of the changes brought about by the Holy Spirit’s descent into our world. Manzoni calls for this descent to occur again.
The poems “March 1821” and “The Fifth of May”
The poems “March 1821” and “The Fifth of May” also marked a turning point moment in patriotic and civil poetry. The first ode commemorates the 1821 revolutions against absolutist regimes, as well as the hope that the Piedmontese army will unite with the Lombard revolutionaries. The second commemorates Napoleon’s death. In both cases, there is no sign of mythological repertory, antique references, or classical poetry rhetorical characters.
Contemporary events are interpreted religiously. God comes to the assistance of the people striving for their independence in “March 1821” because oppression violates his commandments. “The Fifth of May” tells the story of Napoleon’s victories and defeats, from an immortal viewpoint.
Tragic components
Alessandro Manzoni’s tragedies also represented a break with tradition. There were two major innovations: the use of historical tragedy and the rejection of Aristotle’s model of unity. In truth, Greek tragedy dealt with historical personalities and events by isolating the action from historical context. There were no references to specific times or locations. Furthermore, it strictly adhered to the Aristotelian units. Manzoni, on the other hand, intended to situate his characters in a very precise and well-defined historical background.
Manzoni’s thesis on tragedy
Manzoni’s thoughts on tragedy are detailed in “Lettre à M. Chauvet sur l’unité de temps et de lieu dans la tragédie“. It is an 1820 article in which Manzoni responds to J. J. Chauvet’s criticism that he did not observe Aristotelian units. Manzoni stated that he did not want to fabricate facts to suit feelings, but rather sought to demonstrate men’s feelings by their actions.
There is no need for creation because history has already recorded all that men have done concretely. History contains the most diverse repertoire of dramatic subjects and occurrences. The “truth” exists in history, and adhering to the “truth of history” does not require Aristotelian unities. Closing the development of an action inside predetermined confines of time and place causes the characters’ passions to be exaggerated, resulting in the “false” of classicistic tragedy. It does not reflect how men behave in reality.
The Count of Carmagnola
The preface to “The Count of Carmagnola” includes many of Manzoni’s opinions on the tragic genre. The piece, which was written between 1816 and 1820, evokes the story of Francesco Bussone, a 15th-century captain of fortune. He scored numerous victories while serving the Duke of Milan and married his daughter. He then went on to serve in Venice, then sensationally defeated Milan in the Battle of Maclodius. The Venetians, on the other hand, suspected his treason based on Bussone’s compassionate treatment of the Milanese prisoners. He was summoned to Venice under false pretenses, and he was executed.
Convinced of Bussone’s innocence, Manzoni uses his figure to investigate the contradiction between the good and faithful individual and the rationale of state. The tragedy explores the key elements of Manzoni’s worldview. Evil dominates human history. Pure and good people oppose it, but they will fail.
Adelchi
The same conflict is at the heart of the 1822 tragedy, “Adelchi“. This work, as opposed to the “Conte di Carmagnola,” demonstrates a much greater dramatic impact. The poem describes how the Franks under Charlemagne defeated the Lombard kingdom in Italy in the eighth century.
The plot
Charlemagne, King of the Franks, rejects his wife Ermengarde, a Lombard princess and the daughter of King Desiderius, for political reasons. To exact revenge, Desiderius compels Pope Hadrian to crown the sons of Carloman, Charlemagne’s deceased brother and ruler of the Franks. In fact, they had found refuge at the Lombard court upon their father’s death. Charlemagne commands Desiderius to restore the lands plundered from the pope, but he refuses, and war ensues. However, the Lombard dukes betray Desiderius and support Charlemagne. Adelchi, the Lombard prince and Ermengarde’s brother, lacks the strength to fight the Franks, therefore the Lombard army departs.
Meanwhile, Ermengarde has sought safety in a convent, but when she learns of her husband Charlemagne’s remarriage, she dies from sorrow. Svarto, a treacherous soldier, permits the Franks to enter Pavia, the capital of the Lombard Kingdom. Adelchi resists near Verona, but Desiderius is captured. Verona also surrenders, and Adelchi is on the edge of dying. In his final words, he asks the winner to be merciful to his elderly father and dies in a Christian manner.
Analysis of Adelchi
The tragedy follows the happenings of four main protagonists. Desiderius acts out of a desire for revenge against Charlemagne and a desire for conquest. His son, Adelchi, dreams of fame in noble deeds but is unable to achieve them in a society where strength and injustice prevail. Ermengarda wishes to separate herself from the pleasures of the world, but she dies of sorrow for her husband; Charlemagne represses feelings of guilt in the name of the state’s interests and presents himself as the “champion of God.” Consequently, there is a clear contrast between the political figures, Desiderio and Charlemagne, who act for the sake of the state and the desire for power, and the “ideal” characters, Adelchi and Ermengarda, who are pure and noble in spirit.
Alessandro Manzoni’s opera introduces a new element: the choir. However, the Manzonian chorus differs from that of Greek tragedy, which personified the thoughts and sentiments sparked by the action. Instead, the chorus serves as a spokesperson for Manzoni’s vision, allowing the author to express his own emotions in response to the sad occurrences. This enabled the author to offer objectively tragic works without the need for his subjective interpretation of the sentiments and circumstances described.
The Betrothed – I Promessi Sposi
Alessandro Manzoni intended to create a big historical novel in April 1821. He began writing right away, finishing the first two chapters and the introduction after a month and a half. Initially, the work had the name “Fermo and Lucia“. The drafting ended on September 17, 1823. Some manuscripts reporting real-life events served as an inspiration for Manzoni.
Fermo e Lucia is a novel in its own right, as it differs significantly from I Promessi Sposi. The structure is simpler, the characters are less developed, and the linguistic register is far from the “question of language” that preoccupied Manzoni in the later stages of his life.
From Fermo to Lucia to the Betrothed
The “language question” was critical in the development of The Betrothed. In fact, Manzoni rejected Fermo and Lucia’s “medium and limited language” in favor of the Florentine spoken by the bourgeois classes. In 1827, he traveled to Florence to study the language and undertook a thorough linguistic revision of his works. He thought Florentine to be more “true” because it was still spoken.
The author wrote a new version of his novel. The Betrothed was released in its final form between November 1840 and November 1842. It came out in installments, with an addendum titled “History of the infamous column”.
Alessandro Manzoni’s masterpiece
The Betrothed is the most groundbreaking work in the Italian literary heritage. Manzoni gave shape to his new literary vision. In reality, using the term “novel” as a literary expression signified a revolution. The classicist tradition in vogue at the time regarded it as a “minor” genre undeserving of being deemed literature in and of itself. Instead, Alessandro Manzoni saw the novel as the ideal genre for concretely contributing to the revival of Italian literature.
The novel, an instrument for modernization
In fact, the novel’s genre properly responded to the need for “truth”. It enabled reality to be conveyed without the inventions and fictitious artifacts of classical literature. The novel served as a means for reaching out to a broader and more diverse readership than just intellectuals. The storyline and linguistic style caught the reader’s curiosity.
The odes, tragedies, and epic poems did not attract the public’s interest due to their use of too distant themes from ordinary life and difficult language. Furthermore, Manzoni believed that the genre was perfect for introducing his points of view, perceptions of reality, and civil commitment while also providing the reader with historical and contemporary news, ideas, and values.
The novel provided greater freedom of expression. The “separation of styles” disappeared, and humble personalities took the lead. The Betrothed’s protagonists are Renzo and Lucia, two humble commoners from the Lombard countryside. Manzoni’s stories provide an accurate picture of everyday reality with which everyone can identify. For all of these reasons, Manzoni is regarded as the founding father of the modern realistic novel.
The social criticism of The Betrothed
Alessandro Manzoni uses the historical fiction form to describe Lombard society during Spain’s dominance in the seventeenth century. The author expresses his severe disillusionment with this times through societal criticism. Manzoni examines it from the perspective of the Enlightenment, criticizing its paradoxes, inequities, and superstitions. The seventeenth century in Lombardy represents the victory of injustice, folly, and hubris on the part of the government and aristocratic class over the people.
A new model for society
The narrative of The Betrothed highlights the necessity to create a new model of society that is fundamentally different from the seventeenth-century Lombard one. As a result, it will be important to have steady, non-corrupt state power capable of opposing individual exploitation. Then there should be rational legislation, fair justice that protects individuals, smart economic policy, and a system of balanced relationships.
The religious element
According to Manzoni’s theory, in this new model of society, the privileged give to those who do not have, based on the principle of equitable distribution of goods, while the outcasts must patiently endure their situation. This symbolizes the Gospel’s paradigm, and Manzoni believes that Church preaching is critical to fulfilling the ideal of a society free of social class disputes. According to the author, only the Catholic Church can create a reformatory work since it addresses the underlying causes of society’s faults. As a result, it can flourish in areas where political reforms have failed.
For these reasons, Alessandro Manzoni’s Catholicism can coexist with moderate, secular, and liberal progressivism, two overlapping concepts. To avoid the violent reactions that occurred during the French Revolution, the new society must be constructed on bourgeois liberalism and Catholicism.
The Betrothed’s plot
The story begins in a peaceful rural setting. They are two betrothed people who reside in a peaceful village on the banks of Lake Como. They see a tranquil future of labor and prayer. But it’s just an appearance. In truth, the evil of history is already threatening the two young people’s lives, disguised as oppression by Don Rodrigo, a local, domineering, and petty lord.
Renzo and Lucia are thus abruptly wrenched from their serene life and placed into the turbulent flow of historical reality, which looks to be tainted by evil. Renzo experiences evil in the events of San Martino and the plague in Milan. Don Rodrigo, who opposes Lucia’s marriage, inflicts harm on her through his love traps. However, the wickedness of history allows the two young individuals to mature and evolve. In actuality, The Betrothed is a coming-of-age tale.
The evolution of Renzo and Lucia
Renzo and Lucia take two separate transformational paths. Renzo embodies the values of the traditional farmer, but with a rebellious and intolerant attitude toward injustices. This is a risk for the protagonist because these features may drive him to commit violent acts. This would result in the loss of divine compassion and its place in society. As a result, Renzo progresses from a youthful rebel to a man who has completely surrendered to God’s will. He recognizes the futility of overcoming injustices and how action can rapidly escalate to violence.
Lucia
Lucia, on the other hand, appears to be well aware of the hazards associated with taking action to improve things. It rejects violence in favor of God’s will, which provides for all. As a result, Lucia is a character that remains practically static, with little significant evolution. In actuality, the girl is likewise going through a transition. At first, she appears completely immersed in an idyllic and naive image of life. Lucia envisions a happy future in her hamlet, free of evil and historical events, because Divine Providence will keep her out of difficulty.
She is unconscious of evil, which hinders her from understanding human nature and the existence of unpleasant features in the real world. However, as the story progresses, he realizes that calamities can afflict even the innocent. She realizes the sorrow of living in a world irrevocably stained by evil, because evil is inherent in human nature.
Language for Alessandro Manzoni
“The Betrothed” was a groundbreaking study in the field of linguistics. It established a new style of literary language that was free of rhetoric and served as the linguistic model for the future unified Italy. Manzoni wished to reach a broader audience and address issues that are still relevant today. As a result, linguistic revitalization became necessary. He answered the dilemma by stating that the language of united Italy for literary production and daily life had to be Florentine, which was a live and current language.
Manzoni’s approach was enthusiastically accepted by the political elite of united Italy. The Minister of Education appointed him to lead a group tasked with popularizing the new language. In 1868, Alessandro Manzoni published a study proposing the promotion of the Florentine language through the use of a dictionary and Florentine teachers in primary schools. The government carried with Manzoni’s recommendation. However, today’s Italian language has evolved throughout time and is more complicated than plain Florentine.
History of the Infamous Column
Alessandro Manzoni’s “History of the infamous Column” is a historical addendum to his famous novel “The Betrothed”. The study examines the circumstances accompanying the Milan plague of 1630. It concentrates on the prosecution and wrongful death of two innocent people, Gian Giacomo Mora and Guglielmo Piazza, who were accused of spreading the disease. Through this novel, Alessandro Manzoni critiques the superstitions and irrationality of justice under the Spanish dominance of Lombardy, emphasizing how they led to injustices and tragedies.
Major topics
Manzoni’s novel concentrates on the moral sense and ethics of administering justice during the Milan plague of 1630. The story begins with the trial of two supposed plague spreaders: Guglielmo Piazza, an health commissioner, and Gian Giacomo Mora, a barber. The accusation of being responsible for the virus through strange chemicals was based on a popular rumor spread by the the commoner Caterina Rosa.
The trial took place in the summer of 1630 and resulted in the death of the two innocents, who were tortured with the wheel. Despite the lack of specific evidence, they were murdered. Following the burning of their homes, the Infamous Column appeared, symbolizing their presumed culpability.
Alessandro Manzoni turns this narrative into a universal lesson, condemning injustices and abuses of justice at the expense of poor innocent folk. In dark times, people may make incorrect judgments based on superstitions.
Historical context
The Milan plague of 1630 was one of the most devastating catastrophes in 17th-century Lombardy. The disease, which arrived via the soldiers of the Thirty Years’ War, wreaked devastation across the Alps. Thousands of people have died. During that moment of enormous uncertainty and dread, Milanese society looked for scapegoats to blame for the disease’s spread, which fueled communal hysteria.
The works written following The Betrothed
Manzoni’s creative productivity came to a stop with the publication of “The Betrothed” in 1827. He worked on revising the work’s linguistics in Florentine until 1840. However, in private, Manzoni appeared to hold an almost contemptuous attitude towards his masterwork. The author clarified this sentiment several times. He questioned the historical novel’s framework, which combined history and fiction, providing an additional element of lie that did not fit the needs of modern man or reader. His devotion of the “truth” became so strict that it pushed him to study only history and philosophy at the expense of literature. For these reasons, Manzoni stopped writing narrative works. From 1827 to his death in 1873, he wrote exclusively essays.
Manzoni composed “History of the Infamous Column” as a supplement to “The Betrothed” in 1840, reenacting the trial of two suspected culprits during the Milan plague of 1830. Another work was titled “The French Revolution of 1789 and the Italian Revolution of 1859“. This 1862 comparative historical essay was left unfinished. In his later years, Manzoni was greatly influenced by the theologian Antonio Rosmini‘s ideas and works. He was inspired by him in the 1850 dialogue “On the Invention“. For nearly 42 years, Alessandro Manzoni was preoccupied with the linguistic issue and wrote the essay “On the Italian Language,” which remained unfinished.
Alessandro Manzoni biography and works Gallery
